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We begin our examination of the marks in the Middle Ages, in the 14th century. One of the three swords in display case 2 has a cut in the shape of the letter X. It was made on the tang of the handle, so it was usually hidden under the fittings – a practice repeated in later centuries, though in no way to the advantage of the weapon’s maker.

On the basis of this smith’s mark, which resembles the cross of St Andrew, Marian Głosek, an archaeologist and eminent sword expert, attributed the weapon to a Hungarian forge. This was based on the fact that the sword was matched with three other Hungarian examples of the same type, dating from the same period, i.e. around 1380-1420.

The sword was excavated in Michrów, in Polish lands. This would mean that it was either imported or belonged to a person from Hungary. Since the Hungarian Anjou dynasty ruled Kingdom of Poland at that time (1370-1382), the sword gains a new interpretive and historical layer thanks to the sign.

The Janissary-style rifle, placed among the Turkish weapons, contains several signs on silver elements that are a good example of the Eastern approach to marking weapons. The signs are almost invisible, partly because of their small size and partly because they blend in with the surrounding engraved and repoussé decoration.

This mark is the Sultan’s Tughra – a kind of calligraphic writing of the ruler’s name in the Arabic alphabet. In European culture, this would be a royal number, such as ‘AR’ (Augustus Rex) or ‘SAR’ (Stanislaus Augustus Rex), which can also be seen on many weapons.

With a tughra, the weapon could theoretically be dated easily and accurately, as each sultan had his own individual type of tughra. Unfortunately, tughras had a complex structure. They often differed from each other in very minor details. The stamping used to make the tughras on this rifle was too small to show these small elements. Therefore, accurate dating must be based on other features.

The tapestry “Review of the troops at Zabludow” was made in the workshops belongs to magnate Radziwiłł family in Lithuania. They were scattered in various towns: Alba, Korelicze, Nesvizh. The weavers were recruited from the local population and were therefore not specifically trained in this profession, as was the case, for example, with the workshops in Flanders in the 16th century, which were among the leading workshops of their time. In most cases, weavers also belonged to the families of employees already hired by the Radziwiłł family: clerks, gardeners, painters, etc.

Some of the weavers received the title of master. Among them was the creator of the most important and largest of tapestries commissioned by the Radziwiłł family in the 18th century: Anastazja Markiewiczowa. Anastazja probably came from the Narbutowicz family and in 1746 she married Markiewicz (Jan?), a gardener from Alba.

Thanks to historical research, we also know that the master signed on the tapestry did not work alone, but had three girls to help and teach them: Magdalena, whose surname is unknown today, Agata Lewkowiczówna and Agata Zdanowiczówna.

Despite their narrow blades, rapiers often bear inscriptions that provide information about the artist. The lack of space and the uneven surface of the blade, often stiffened with ridges, did not prevent makers from carving whole words and sometimes maxims instead of a single character. An example is the blade of a basket rapier from the first half of the 17th century.

The blade, used for stabbing, is signed “HEINRICH COEL IN SOLINGEN”, with the letter “E” in the form of a decorative and rounded “X”. The German town of Solingen was one of the most established and best centres for the manufacture of close combat weapons in Europe. Heinrich Coel, who was born in Solingen, emigrated to Spain over time and there, in the years 1590-1610, he produced edged weapon blades that were considered to be among the best in Europe at the time. The name of the German appears in several variants: Enrique Col, Henrique Sol, Col, etc., and the excellent reputation associated with these products meant that his signature could be found on weapons even many years after his death.

One of the most famous and longest established families of gunsmiths were the Kuchenreuters, who were active in Germany from the 17th to the mid-19th century. The two pairs of pistols hanging above the display case and surrounding the antlers were made by Johann Christoph II Kuchenreuter (1755-1815). He belonged to the third generation of gunsmiths working in Regensburg. He signed his guns in two ways: both by the inscriptions on the barrel (i.e. IOSEPH KUCHENREITER A RATISBONNE) and by a stamped round mark with the image of a horseman and the initials “ICK”.

There are several other Kuchenreuter products on display. Around the antlers are two rifles, one of which was made by the founder of the gunsmith dynasty: Johann Christoph I. It is also worth taking a look at the showcase 19, where under numbers 17 and 18 there are very interesting sets: small travelling pistols and a cartridge with an additional stock that was attached to the pistol, transforming it into a long firearm.

The inscription on the barrel, inlaid with gold wire, reads: “C.L. Gibenhan a Varsovie”. It belonged to Karol Ludwik Gibenhan (sometimes spelled Giebenhan), who worked in Warsaw in the second half of the 18th century. Karl Louis came to Poland from Germany. His sons, already Polonised, continued their father’s craft in the 19th century.

Karol Ludwik Gibenhan was one of the best gunsmiths working in the twilight of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and his products were ordered by King Stanislaw August himself as diplomatic gifts.

In addition to the Warsaw pistol, drawer no. 15 also contains two pistols made in Krakow. Both were made by Ignacy Höfelmajer (1825-1889), a gunsmith from an Austrian family that settled in Krakow at the beginning of the 19th century and was later Polonised.

Ignacy perfected his craft by working in gunsmiths in Belgium and elsewhere. He then returned to Krakow to set up his own workshop. He went down in Polish history as the person who supplied weapons to the January Uprising of 1863. However, he mainly produced luxury weapons, such as this pistol and the karabela sabres, which became his trademark (see display case 26). He did not have a standard signature and almost every copy of his weapon has an individually made inscription.

This pair was made in the early 18th century using an experimental semi-automatic loading system invented around 1680 by Michele Lorenzoni of Florence. This solution was adapted by the Wetschgi family of Augsburg, who replaced the lock with a rotating cylinder with a lever that collected the bullets and gunpowder from the chambers. Two members of this family, Andreas and August, were active at the same time. The latter is signed on the Krakow weapon: “Fecit et Invenit Wetschgi Augustae” or “Made and invented by Wetschgi Augusta”.

The author of the air gun with the Girardioni system was the Austrian gunsmith Joseph Contriner. He was the second representative of the Viennese family of gunsmiths who were active from the end of the 18th century until around the middle of the 19th century. He became a master in 1817, but unfortunately little is known about his activities. He probably worked until 1836.

Although “Contriner in Wien” does not indicate which gunsmith of the family it refers to, a gilded inscription with his name has survived on the barrel of the shotgun. This is an important clue, because at the same time other Contriner, Johann, was also working on air guns, using the same system, which allowed the gun to be loaded quickly thanks to a magazine for 12 bullets.

Signatures on firearms are most often those of gunsmiths. The marks of craftsmen who made and often decorated the stock of firearms are rare. Luxury guns, made of wood, were decorated with carvings and inlays, often at a high artistic level. This target shotgun is certainly one of them, with an unusual spiral stock – a very rare solution and a demonstration of woodworking skills.

The author of this unusual design is revealed by the bone incrusted initials near the lock: “LD”. They belong to Lorenz Dreschler, who worked in Dresden from 1558 to 1586. He appears to have been a member of a family of master craftsmen working in the Saxon capital, as his son was known in the early 17th century as a maker of fine musical instruments, including some for the Wettyn family.

Along with the Gibenhan family, Andrzej Kownacki was a prominent name among Warsaw gunsmiths at the end of the 18th century. However, he first became known as a gunsmith in Paris, where he made luxurious firearms with the golden inscription ‘Kownacki Paris Rue Dauphine’ on the barrel. This particular shotgun was also made there.

King Stanislaw Augustus brought Kownacki to Warsaw and appointed him director of the Kozienice arms factory.