← Not only the Wawel Dragon Iconography at the exhibition

Along the display case no. 6, which houses the equestrian procession, there are panels with texts explaining the meaning of each figure. They are accompanied by reproductions of works of art that served as historical inspiration for the recreation of the horses and their riders. However, three of them are prints by the German artist Georg Eimmart (1638-1705) working in Stockholm, illustrating a carousel organised in honour of King Charles XI in 1672.

Why, then, are foreign works of art being exhibited rather than local ones? There are several reasons behind the exhibition scenario.

Firstly, the exhibition assumes that there is an ideological continuity between the tournaments, i.e. the great propaganda spectacles of the 16th century and the great hussar parades of the 17th and even 18th centuries, and that the tournament tradition was still alive in Europe. The carousel was nothing other than one of these tournaments, and the horses shown on it, dressed in Polish livery, refer to the hussars shown at the exhibition.

On the other hand, the graphics and the event depicted provide an interesting cultural commentary on the orientalisation of Polish clothing and weaponry, and above all on the reception of Poles at European courts in the 17th century. During the Stockholm carousel, the Swedish nobility dressed up as “three exotic peoples”: Goths, Turks and… Poles.

Thirdly, the Polish group is rich in details of Polish weapons, costumes and even hussar wings. It can be said with a high degree of certainty that a large part of the wonderful riches shown by Eimmart are Swedish conquests from only a dozen or so years before, i.e. from the war of 1655-1660. It is estimated that the losses in movable property taken by the Swedes from the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were greater than in any subsequent war, even in the 20th century. These graphics make us aware of the scale and significance of these irreparable losses, and at the same time of the huge gap in our knowledge of the material heritage of the 17th century.

The second horse in the exhibition has a characteristic red painting on the lower part of its body. This is a reference to the old Hussar custom of painting the horse “in half”, which is known from several written sources. The only iconographic information is the famous roll known as the “Stockholm” or “Vasa” roll, depicting the entry of Sigismund III Vasa into Krakow (the Royal Castle in Warsaw). It is one of the most perfect and detailed iconographic sources of the history of Polish clothing and weaponry. On the basis of this source, the exhibition also recreates a hussar’s wing with the motifs of a half moon and stars.

The figure of the hussar itself is from the 18th century and does not correspond to the pictures from 1605. The reason for this is the lack of such weapons in the collections, but above all the desire to discuss the issue of armaments and the legend of the hussars through relics from different periods of their existence.

Rider on Horse No. 3 is a bunchuk-bearer, faithfully reproduced after the work of Jan Christian Mock “Campament of Polish and Saxon troops near Warsaw” (Polish Army Museum in Warsaw), which shows in extraordinary detail the troops assembled by Augustus II for inspection in 1732. It depicts an armoured man wearing a missiourka helmet to protect his head, his body covered in chain mail and vembracers on his forearms.

The Hetman’s symbol in the museum is also very similar to the painted version – equally long, painted green and slightly curved, ending in a fan of feathers. The two differ in that the painting has a bunchuk at the top, i.e. horsehair wrapped in a net that flows from a decorative knob, while the Krakow specimen has white and crimson ribbons.

The light armour of a bunchuk bearer was not the rule. The second of Mock’s paintings and other iconographic sources show that hussars also performed this honourable function for the hetman.

Above the showcase dedicated to the 17th century and the Battle of Cecora is a portrait of one of the hetmans of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as evidenced by the mace in his hand. For many years this painting was thought to be the portrait of Stanislaw Żółkiewski, who died in the battle of Cecora against the Turks in 1620.
Recent research and conservation work, which uncovered the overpainted inscriptions, has shown that the portrait is of Marcin Kazanowski (1563-1636), Voivode of Podolia and Crown Field Hetman in 1633-1636, who served under Żółkiewski, among others, in the famous victorious Battle of Kłuszyn (1608).

Marcin Kazanowski also took part in the lost battle of Cecora. He saved his life by disguising himself as a common soldier when he was captured and, without admitting his nobility and rank, managed to redeem himself at a relatively low cost.

The tapestry “Review of the troops at Zabłudów in 1744” is certainly the most important work of art at the exhibition, which is also an important iconographic source. It is discussed in detail in the available web application:

This tapestry, despite the rather unfavourable medium for showing details, contains many unique and source-confirmed depictions of various elements of weaponry. Since 18th-century visual works depicting the Lithuanian army are very rare today, it is an even more valuable document of this period of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

So what can we see there, apart from the figure of the Hetman on his horse, which occupies most of the space? We can see a unit of Tartars riding at the head of the army, followed by dragoons in typical foreign dress, Lithuanian light cavalry called “petyhorcy” and hussars. You can see details such as three-horned hats, an round “umbo” plates on the back, lances and spears and, finally, the high wings of the hussars, which are characteristic of this period. Even the bunchuk carried behind the hetman can be seen – identical to the one on display in case no. 6.

Archival research proves that the figure of the hetman, or rather the clothes of his horse, and the tents placed on the horizon are also of extraordinary importance. They are connected with the Battle of Vienna in 1683, and here on this cloth they show not only the ideological intention of the founder, Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł, who wanted to present himself as the heir of Jan III, the victor of Vienna, but also the spirit of the eighteenth century, when a famous victory was still alive several dozen years after the death of the famous king.

Above the showcase of objects from the Wettin period in Poland is a portrait of a moustached figure in armour. This is Paweł Benoe, a Warsaw castellan who died in 1755, a member of a French family but Polonised and ennobled at the end of the 17th century. The choice of this portrait for the exhibition is not accidental.

Paweł Benoe’s life is related to the themes discussed in this part of the exhibition. In 1733 he was a member of the confederation that defended the election of Stanislaw Leszczynski, the rival candidate for the throne of Augustus III. This corresponds to the monuments displayed in the showcase, in particular the sabre associated with King Stanislaw and the hussar’s armour associated with his supporters, with an altered motto on the cross. This part of the exhibition also shows the Turkish influence on Polish arms, including two sabres commemorating the Polish mission to Turkey in 1712. The figure of Paweł Benoe also completes our history. He spoke Turkish, which is why he was sent with an embassy to the Ottoman Empire in 1742.

However, the most important reason for displaying his portrait is, of course, the fact that he is dressed in a hussar’s costume. He is wearing armour consisting of a breastplate, pauldrons and a rather awkwardly presented gorget under his neck. You can also see the leopard skin covering his back and shoulders, in accordance with an old Hussar custom that was still practised in the 18th century. We see another important element on the armour – a brass cross. This image is one of several iconographic sources in Polish collections, which confirm the existing historical material from museums and excavations, indicating that the Hussar’s armour was decorated in this way during the reign of the Saxons.

Opposite the portrait of Paweł Benoe, in display case no. 20, there is a portrait by Marcin Remela, on loan from the Museum of Art in Łódź. This is another typical local example of a Polish portrait, popularly known as the “Sarmatian”, which shows a moustachioed man with his attributes. It is Józef Głębocki (1700-1780), the castellan of Kruszwica and, like Benoe, a supporter of Stanisław Leszczyński in the 1733 election. This portrait, largely unknown in literature, is another interesting source for the history of weapons in his time.

The first thing to note is the colour of his clothing. Under his breastplate he wears a navy blue robe with crimson lapels, revealing the crimson colour of the zhupan. This colour scheme, in accordance with the first uniform regulation of 1746, denotes the armoured cavalry formation of which Głębocki became captain in 1764. Perhaps the 1757 painting should be set back a few years?

Among the weapons in the painting, apart from the breastplate and the sabre with a sling that the model is holding in his hand, we can see another sabre on the table in front of Głębocki, this time a karabela, also with a silver-crimson sling, in accordance with the regulations of the time. Next to it is a mace and a barely visible flintlock pistol, which the painter has fitted almost by force.

The most interesting element of the painting is a scale-armour helmet in the form of a turban, with a rim in (again) crimson and navy blue, the national color. Quite a large group of such turban helmets has been preserved in Polish collections, dating back to the 17th century – just like all scale armours called “karacena”. This painting is most likely the only representation of this headgear known to us in portrait iconography. Should the dating of the entire group of objects be moved to the 18th century based only on this one source?

This seems to be justified. We are dealing with a rare situation in Polish painting where we know who was painted, by whom and when. The painting, as can be seen from the detailed color and weapon elements, is of a documentary nature. It also seems that wearing turbans following the Turkish pattern could not have been introduced among Polish armored men earlier than in the 18th century, due to the wave of imitation of exotic patterns in the form of janissary troops at courts, oriental carabels at the side of noblemen’s costumes and other elements of male disguise.

In contrast to the previous two pictures of Polish nobility, above showcase 21 is a 1767 portrait of General Alojzy Brühl (1739-1793) by Per Krafft the Elder (from the collection of the National Museum in Warsaw).

The word “contrast” is not exaggerated. It concerns the method of portraiture as well as the artistic quality. It is a portrait of the European class, different from local Polish painting. This contrast also applies to clothing and weapons. While the Polish paintings showed national costumes before and after the uniform reform of 1746, this painting shows a typical uniform used in Poland, but of foreign origin, similar to the costumes and uniforms used in other European countries at that time. In this case, it is the uniform of an artillery general. Brühl held this position from 1761 and became one of the most outstanding army organisers in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth before the Partition.

In contrast to the previous two pictures of Polish nobility, above display case 21 is a portrait of General Alojzy Brühl (1739-1793) by Per Krafft the Elder (from the collection of the National Museum in Warsaw), painted in 1767.

The word ‘contrast’ is not exaggerated. It concerns the method of portraiture as well as the painting and artistic quality. It is a portrait of the European class, different from local Polish painting. This contrast also applies to clothing and weapons. While the Polish paintings showed Polish costumes before and after the uniform reform of 1746, this painting shows a typical Polish uniform, but of foreign origin, similar to the costumes and uniforms used in other European countries at that time. In this case, it is the uniform of an artillery general. Brühl held this position from 1761 and became one of the most outstanding organisers of this type of troops in the Republic of Poland before the Partition.

The model wears a uniform in typical artillery colours: green jacket with red lapels. The rank of the general was marked by a golden serpent on the surface of the rolled-up sleeves. At the waist he wears an officer’s sash with white and amaranth stripes, tied on the right in the tradition of the Crown Army. Under the jacket, the sitter wears a breastplate, under which a waistcoat protrudes at the bottom. Around his neck is the Order of Alexander Nevsky, awarded in 1757. The second order is, of course, the White Eagle, marked by a blue ribbon running from the left shoulder to the right. The role of the artillery general is emphasised by the model of a cannon in the background.

Uniforms of this type are thought to have been based on German, particularly Saxon, models, but this does not appear to be any other than Polish clothing. It seems that the white cockade and white cordon visible on the hat were Polish features used in foreign contingent. The portrait is interesting because it shows the uniform on the eve of the changes ordered in 1767, when European models were replaced by Russian ones.

The small-sword lying on the chair, with its hilt wrapped in a sling, is a standard weapon of the period: the crossguard is separated from the blade by two oval shields, one of the arms of the crossguard turns into a bow connected to a spherical pommel, on the top of which there is a prominent rivet. The hilt has the typical spindle shape of the period, quadrangular in cross section, wrapped with copper tape and iron or silver wire. Identical swords can be found both around the portrait and in display case no. 20.

The portrait in the display case shows General Benedykt Kołyszko (1750-1834) in the uniform of a general of the national cavalry. There are several copies of this painting in museums, in which we can see an old man with his hand on a saber or with his arms crossed on his chest. Judging by its age, we can assume that the painting was created after the fall of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, in the 19th century, perhaps in the 1820s or 1830s.

This conclusion is reached after analysing the uniform shown in the portrait. It does not correspond to the real uniform, which is on display in the showcase and was donated by the general’s family. The colours are correct (navy blue and crimson), and the collar with the General’s embroidery is correctly painted. However, the jacket flaps, which have a triangular cut in the picture, look completely different. Similarly, the epaulette, although resembling the silver regulation distinction, has a different structure from any other object known to us today.

It can therefore be assumed that the author of the portrait did not see the uniform, or used inaccurate sketches, notes or his own memory. This leads to the thesis that the portrait could have been created after the general’s death, for example at the request of his family. It is difficult to believe that the person in question would have accepted a work that so far deviated from the correct image of the Polish national uniform, especially during the struggle for independence.

The portrait shows Prince Józef Poniatowski (1763-1813), Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Army, in a general’s uniform from the Napoleonic Wars. This is a posthumous copy of the painting now in the collections of the Sikorski Institute and Museum in London, which was originally painted for the interiors of the “Pod Blachą” Palace in Warsaw. It is not entirely clear who painted the original. Both Marcello Bacciarelli and Józef Grassi, who were active in Warsaw in the 18th and 19th centuries, are mentioned.

The presence of the portrait is important because of the General’s memorabilia preserved in the exhibition space. In showcase 19 (object no. 12) there is a beautiful pair of pistols, which were a gift from the Prince to the future General Klemens Kołaczkowski. In showcase 21 (nos. 7 and 11) there are equestrian items of exceptional beauty and elaborate workmanship, which, according to tradition, belonged to Poniatowski. Among the decorations in display case 23, the most valuable one, which leaves no doubt as to its authenticity and attribution, is the Star of the Grand Cross of the Military Order of the Duchy of Warsaw, i.e. the Virtuti Militari, which can also be seen in his portraits, including the one hanging above the display case.

The last portrait is of Franciszek Paszkowski (1778-1856), the owner of the general’s uniform in showcase no. 25. In the portrait we can see the uniform jacket with all the elements that unfortunately have not survived with the actual uniform: a pouch belt with a decorative silver eagle running across the chest and the Order of Saint Henry, the highest military decoration of the Kingdom of Saxony, and on the chest the Polish Virtuti Militari and the French Legion of Honour.

To the trained eye, however, the uniform is not identical to the one in the portrait. The difference is mainly in the embroidery of the general’s rank, which in the portrait has five zones, while on the uniform it is poorer and narrower, with only three zones. Historians have tried to explain this. The uniform shown in the portrait agrees with other sources, but the uniform itself also has a fully confirmed origin. Perhaps the uniform, which was ordered in Paris was made in a hurry, before the next campaign, and without reference to the relevant regulations? This dilemma cannot be resolved at present and must remain in the realm of hypothesis.